뉴욕 컬럼

The Awakening of Faith in Mahayana is a book written by the Indian Bodhisattva Ashvaghosha around the 5th century CE, with the intention of strengthening faith in Mahayana. Although it is based on Yogacara philosophy, it does not stop at Alaya-vijnana, the highest value of Yogacara, but asserts the idea of One Mind. Wonhyo said that One Mind is nirvana, and nirvana is Tathagatagarbha. The difference between Alaya-vijnana and Tathagatagarbha in Yogacara is that both are based on a storage consciousness that contains the same memories, but Alaya-vijnana emphasizes that it is the basis of enlightenment and nirvana, as well as the basis of defilements. Tathagatagarbha is the idea that it is the basis of enlightenment and nirvana, and there can be no defilements. In his commentary on The Awakening of Faith in Mahayana, Wonhyo concretized the purpose of The Awakening of Faith in Mahayana by defining Tathagatagarbha as a mind full of infinite merits. He made the perfectly pure mind, which is of a different dimension from Alaya-vijnana, that is, the mind whose defilements have completely disappeared, the standard for practice.

Xuanzang (602-664), the protagonist of Journey to the West, a well-known Tang Dynasty monk, was a master of Yogacara. The content of Yogacara explains in detail the first cause and process to clarify where and how human suffering, ultimately death, came from. The process of reaching death in Yogacara is as follows: ignorance, volitional formations, consciousness, name-and-form, six sense bases, contact, feeling, craving, clinging, becoming, birth, and old age and death. This is expressed as the twelve links of dependent origination. In modern terms, it refers to the process from ignorance to unconscious intention, unconscious judgment, form and concept, six sense organs (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, consciousness), contact, sensation, love, attachment, existence (self), birth, and then aging and death. In particular, the independent school of Yogacara was established in the process of classifying the judgment function in more detail.

Looking at it, it's like this: when our sensory organs—eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind—encounter an object, they each produce eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, and mind-consciousness. The processes of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, feeling, and judging are defined as the first five consciousnesses. Mind-consciousness acknowledges the existence of consciousness that operates independently of the first five consciousnesses and is classified as the sixth consciousness. The sixth consciousness also integrates information from the first five consciousnesses. The source of these six consciousnesses is the Manas-consciousness, also known as self-consciousness. It is the fundamental consciousness (judgmental faculty) that distinguishes between 'I' and 'you.' This consciousness is based on the Alaya-consciousness, a storehouse consciousness. It is where all information about human thoughts and actions is stored. It is where both the elements of defilement and the elements of enlightenment coexist. The enlightenment of the Yogacara school is a matter of how the defiling elements of the Alaya-consciousness can settle down without agitation. The primary concern of the Yogacara school is not to eliminate defilements through practice, but to quiet them. In other words, for the Yogacara school, the Alaya-consciousness is both the foundation of enlightenment and the cause of suffering through defilements. Ultimately, the greatest challenge is to discover the Alaya-consciousness and maintain tranquility through continuous meditation. They conclude that the enlightened one is not agitated, and the agitated one is not enlightened.

At that time, Master Xuanzang interpreted this method of Indian Yogacara interpretation as a hierarchical system that divides the sensory organs into upper and lower levels. The first five consciousnesses (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body consciousness) are considered lower than mind-consciousness, which is lower than Manas-consciousness (self-consciousness), which in turn is lower than Alaya-consciousness (storehouse, subconscious). This is not merely a classification of conscious activities; politically, it can be understood as a way to elevate the authority of the Tang imperial court. Ultimately, the Alaya-consciousness can be understood as the emperor with the highest potential for enlightenment, while the Manas-consciousness, mind-consciousness, and the first five consciousnesses can be understood as officials and common people. It can be seen as a means to rationalize the social structure and hierarchy of the time.

Xuanzang, from his studies in India until his return and work on translating scriptures, received active financial support from Emperor Taizong and Emperor Gaozong. Therefore, Xuanzang's systematized interpretation of Yogacara Buddhism is understandable. The term 'pasahyeonjeong' (破邪顯正), often used in our political circles, comes from Xuanzang's interpretation of Yogacara. It was coined by Xuanzang. It declares that Alayavijnana should be considered the highest value and that Buddhist practice should center around it. The other five or six consciousnesses and Manas-vijnana (self-consciousness) were regarded as perverse. However, in Buddhism, which advocates human equality, can Xuanzang's way of thinking truly be considered orthodox? Wonhyo's Panbiryangnon criticizes Xuanzang's systematized interpretation of Yogacara. 'Biryang' means logic (proof), and 'pan' means criticism. In other words, it refers to a treatise that criticizes Xuanzang's logic and method of argumentation regarding Yogacara. It addresses the inherent limitations of Xuanzang, who received financial support from the imperial family, specifically how to equalize the systematization and grading of various consciousness functions.

In Panbiryangnon, Wonhyo did not systematically grade consciousness from eye-consciousness to the eighth consciousness, Alayavijnana, but instead proposed a cyclical hermeneutics where Alayavijnana circularly influences eye-consciousness. This was a revolutionary idea at the time, equalizing rather than grading the consciousnesses. The idea that Alayavijnana, the highest consciousness, would again influence the lowest eye-consciousness was an impossible way of thinking in China at the time. This was partly due to the authority of Xuanzang, but also because it could be considered an insult to the emperor, who had to maintain supreme political authority. The Tang Dynasty can be seen as an era that sought to control the populace through Buddhist thought. It is worth remembering that political power tried to control even the minute details of religion in this way. I believe that even today, only the form has changed, but it is not significantly different.

In contrast, Wonhyo's thought can be seen as centered on the people, not the king. The fact that he sang the Muaega in his later years, was called Bokseong Geosa, and gave up all vested interests to evangelize among the common people was based on this idea of equality. Wonhyo did not teach Buddhism in a difficult way. He did not teach that enlightenment could only be attained by studying doctrine, participating in specific religious rituals, and meditating. He taught that anyone could go to paradise simply by chanting Amitabha Buddha. This is Pure Land Buddhism. He put forward the easiest way to immediately relieve the common people who were tired of life, that is, to immediately bring peace of mind, rather than difficult theories. This is because the common people could immediately accept it. His acts of sleeping with Princess Yoseok, giving birth to Seolchong, growing his hair, and drinking alcohol were all means to get closer to the common people, and a teaching that there is a path to enlightenment not only in temples but also in the secular world. If we consider Wonhyo as the ideological foundation of Unified Silla, the first unified nation of our people, it is clear that the people-centered ideology, which valued and based itself on the people, was the foundation. He was a figure who used Buddhism not as a tool for the rulers' governance, but only for the happiness of the common people. It is very fortunate that such a figure illuminated the ideological dawn of the first unified Korean nation. This is because today's Korean democracy is ultimately based on the people-centered ideology.

Wonhyo defined truth as being without views and without establishment. He defined it as having nothing more to discard and nothing more to fill. And he used "jinyo," meaning true and constant, to refer to truth. This aligns with the view of truth held by Ashvaghosha Bodhisattva. Although Ashvaghosha Bodhisattva recognized jinyo as truth, he did not use it as a term representing the highest state or enlightenment. Instead, he used the term "ilsim" (one mind) to denote the highest enlightenment, and used "jinyomun" (gate of jinyo) instead of jinyo. And as its counterpart, he posited "saengmyeolmun" (gate of birth and death).

This insight reveals that once truth or suchness is put into language, it is no longer suchness itself. This aligns with Cantor's concept of infinity, which demonstrated differences even within the idea of infinity. It's a proof that the infinity of integers is smaller than the infinity of real numbers. While there's a one-to-one correspondence between the infinity of even and odd integers, for real numbers, even if you try to establish a one-to-one correspondence with integers, there will always be one more real number greater than the corresponding integer. Therefore, it has been proven that the infinity of real numbers is greater than the infinity of integers. This is the core of Cantor's diagonal argument and set theory.

I believe that the concept of infinity, once put into language, inevitably becomes differentiated, even if it inherently implies no distinction due to the limitations of language. This is because of the limitations of language. Buddhism also begins with the realization of the limitations of language. When one realizes that language cannot represent truth, wisdom blossoms. This is called Prajna. The Prajna in the Prajnaparamita Sutra refers to this very meaning. It means recognizing facts as they are, free from the constraints of language. In other words, the concept of infinity—that there are no limits, so both sides cannot be divided, objects cannot be differentiated, and there must be equality—the moment it is put into language, it reveals differentiation, contrary to the content of the original concept. Ashvaghosha and Wonhyo are thought to be individuals who thoroughly grasped these limitations of language.

Ashvaghosha understood that the One Mind has two gates: the Gate of Suchness and the Gate of Arising and Ceasing. His goal was to return to the state of the One Mind through the tension and communication between these two gates. Simply put, the Gate of Suchness refers to good thoughts and actions, while the Gate of Arising and Ceasing refers to unwholesome thoughts and actions. Achieving the One Mind is possible when the state of the Gate of Suchness continuously outweighs the Gate of Arising and Ceasing. Ashvaghosha describes this process as perfuming the Gate of Arising and Ceasing through the Gate of Suchness. This refers to the process where good thoughts and actions gradually and slowly transform unwholesome thoughts and actions.

One might ask if "Ilsim," the main concept of the Awakening of Faith in Mahayana, is also a language. However, literally translated, this word means "one mind." It was not a term used within Buddhism at that time. And conceptually, it does not mean truth. It merely points to the experienced world of truth that cannot be expressed in words. The Awakening of Faith in Mahayana states that Mahayana means Tathata (suchness), Tathata means Ilsim (one mind), Ilsim means Nirvana (extinction), and Nirvana is Tathagatagarbha (Buddha-nature). It is an infinite world premised on absolute equality. If this is applied to humans and society, it would be a state of endless peace.

Regarding what Tathagatagarbha is, Wonhyo states in his commentary on the Mahayana-sraddhotpada-sastra to prevent misunderstanding: "This is stated to prevent worldly people from misunderstanding Tathagatagarbha. Tathagatagarbha is a mind filled with infinite merits, a state devoid of even an inch of unwholesome thought or action." This statement warns against some people confusing Tathagatagarbha with Alaya-vijnana, interpreting it as both the seed of Suchness and the seed of defilements. Considering Wonhyo's kind interpretation to dispel such misunderstandings of Tathagatagarbha, it becomes clear what the Mahayana-sraddhotpada-sastra is based on and what its ultimate goal is. It is precisely a mental world composed of infinite good merits, without even an inch of bad thoughts or defilements. This presupposes that there should be no linguistic or physical violence within Silla society. Furthermore, considering that it was the time when the great feat of unifying the Three Kingdoms was being achieved, it presupposes that for Wonhyo, Unified Silla should be a Tathagatagarbha world and a completely peaceful nation. I believe he envisioned a Unified Silla free from any violence, internal strife, or war.

His ideas must have instilled in most people at the time, regardless of whether they were from Goguryeo, Baekje, or Silla, the understanding that the world of One Mind and Tathagatagarbha is a world without violence. I believe Wonhyo inspired non-violent peace in the people of Unified Silla through his Tathagatagarbha thought. The fact that Baekje and Goguryeo fell, and Silla, after expelling the Tang Dynasty in 676, remained a unified nation for 259 years until its fall in 935, suggests that a central ideology clearly existed, and Wonhyo's One Mind and Tathagatagarbha thoughts were widely accepted by the people of Unified Silla. So, from the perspective of a practitioner, how exactly did Wonhyo reconcile disputes? His method is well-illustrated in his work, Sipmunhwajaengnon. Although there are various sects within Buddhism, and the way Buddhism is understood differs according to perspective and position, these are ultimately just glimpses of a larger world of truth. Since everyone is expounding only one aspect of the ultimate truth, if everyone were to change their perspective, there would be more than enough understanding. He also chose a method of resolving disputes by moving beyond confrontational language and viewing problems from a higher dimension. I will introduce the specific contents of the 10 disputes on another occasion. However, what must be remembered is that Wonhyo's method of reconciling disputes is one of integration (hoetong). It involves excluding one-sided claims, understanding the opponent's position (empathy), viewing the problem from a higher, holistic dimension, and enabling mutual integration.

The commonality between Sipmunhwajaengnon and Tathagatagarbha thought is that they both encourage thinking on a higher dimension. I believe that Sipmunhwajaengnon's emphasis on empathy, making one realize that their own assertion is just one aspect of the whole, and Tathagatagarbha thought's postulation of a world of infinite merit free from all defilements, a world of eternal peace, are the same approach to problem-solving. Both postulate an ideal world beyond present experience, that is, a world of absolute peace. However, such a peaceful world is still a world to be experienced in reality.

Here, we need to consider how South Korea is currently trying to resolve the differences in positions between North and South Korea, and whether it is attempting to resolve them at a higher level, like the Sipsimhwajaengnon or the Tathagatagarbha thought of the Daeseung Gisinron. I will examine this focusing on the most basic constitutional provisions. Currently, South Korea's constitution has a territorial clause. Article 3 states that the territory of the Republic of Korea consists of the Korean Peninsula and its adjacent islands. This is an ineffective phrase. Rather, it becomes a potential seed of conflict between North and South Korea. I believe it is an ideological provision that differs from reality and potentially harbors the possibility of war. In fact, the Constituent Assembly Constitution also contained this provision, and Syngman Rhee repeatedly advocated for a northern invasion before the Korean War. I think it was an impulsive claim.

As mentioned earlier, Buddhism states that human suffering begins with ignorance through the twelve links of dependent origination. Ignorance refers to a lack of understanding of the truth. And it is said that in that state of ignorance, there are three subtle delusions: ignorance-karma-impression, the impression of the perceiver, and the impression of the perceived. All are subtle thoughts close to the subconscious. The impression of the perceiver is the subjective, meaning the thought that 'I' exist independently, and the impression of the perceived is the objective, meaning the thought that 'you' exist independently. And ignorance-karma-impression is a thought where the distinction between 'I' and 'you' has not even arisen. Here, 'impression' (thought) refers to thoughts accumulated from past experiences. The Daeseung Gisinron defines even this ignorance-karma-impression as a subtle affliction. And from ignorance-karma-impression, impulsive forces and potential desires sprout, providing the impetus for action without any rational thought process.

I believe that Article 3 of the Constitution, the territorial clause, enables the Korean people to have impulsive ideas about unification. I believe that Syngman Rhee's continuous主張 for an invasion of the North before the Korean War was due to Article 3 of the Constitution's territorial clause. Given South Korea's military strength at the time, his claims can only be seen as impulsive. Furthermore, the Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana states that following these three delusions, human suffering continues through the inherited consciousness, the discriminating consciousness, and attachment. Inherited consciousness refers to the continuous, unconscious arising of past bad thoughts; discriminating consciousness refers to further distinguishing these arisen thoughts, deepening discrimination towards objects; and finally, attachment to arisen thoughts or objects repeats suffering.

The most urgent task for peaceful unification in South Korea is to limit Article 3 of the Constitution, the territorial clause, to areas under effective control. This is where constitutional amendment is needed. It also involves recognizing the subtle delusion of ignorance and clearly defining the current border between North and South Korea. Furthermore, it means no longer instigating disputes over territorial issues. The method is simple: do not bring up any past issues with North Korea at this point. Even if new incidents occur, respond with peaceful methods, not violent ones. Finally, for the establishment of peace between North and South Korea, do not cling only to the South Korean way. We must put ourselves in North Korea's shoes.

Finally, it is about redefining the concept of unification. We need to recall Wonhyo's understanding of the Tathagatagarbha as mentioned in the Daeseung Gisinron. For Wonhyo, the Tathagatagarbha is the one mind (ilshim), a state of nirvana where all defilements have disappeared, a world filled with infinite merits, and a state of peace free from all afflictions. I believe our unification should also become the world of Tathagatagarbha that Wonhyo envisioned. Even after unification, the Korean Peninsula must remain free from any unrest, civil war, or war. This principle should be reaffirmed in a constitutional amendment. Not only peaceful unification, but the constitution should clearly state that the Korean Peninsula must remain peaceful even after unification. To satisfy this, we must constantly strive. We must be able to think from North Korea's perspective and exercise the wisdom to solve problems based on current events and facts, not the past. If we have a firm belief in peaceful unification and a firm principle for a peaceful Korean Peninsula even after unification, I believe the best foundation for Korean Peninsula unification policy has been laid. And what we need to do is to send friendly messages and implement policies that encourage North Korea to communicate with South Korea. If these efforts accumulate, I am confident that peaceful unification between the two Koreas and peace on the Korean Peninsula will surely be achieved.